Index_Glossary_A_thru

JAPANESE PRINTS

A MILLION QUESTIONS

TWO MILLION MYSTERIES

Ukiyo-e Prints

浮世絵版画

Port Townsend, Washington

A CLICKABLE

INDEX/GLOSSARY

(Hopefully this will be an ever changing and growing list.)

A THRU Bl

The gold koban coin on a blue ground is being used to mark additions made in June 2008. The red on white kiku mon was used in May.

TERMS FOUND ON THIS PAGE:

Ageboshi, Ageha no cho, Ai, Aigami, Aizuri-e, Aka-e,

Amagatsu, Amanojaku, Ame, Andon and Ankō

揚帽子, 揚羽蝶, 藍, 藍紙, 藍摺絵, 赤絵, 天児,

天邪鬼, 雨, アメリカ原住民, 行灯, 鮟鱇

あげぼうし, あげはのちょう, あい, あいがみ, あいずりえ,

あかえ, あまがつ, あまのじゃく, あめ, あんどん and あんこう

TERM/NAME

KANJI/KANA

DESCRIPTION/

DEFINITION/

CATEGORY

Click on the yellow numbers

to go to linked pages.

Age-bōshi

揚帽子

あげぼうし

A head cloth worn by women to keep their oiled hair clean from dust and properly coiffed during an outing. Very similar to the headdress worn by a bride. (See our entry on tsunokakushi.)

The image to the left is a detail from a print by Kiyonaga showing an actor in the role of a female samurai.

Ageha no cho

揚羽蝶

あげはのちょう

"...a butterfly with its wings raised...was the alternate crest of Segawa Kikunojo."

藍

あい

Japanese indigo from the plant Polygonum tinctorium or dyer's knotweed - it is also referred to as tade ai: Indigo as a color can be produced from any number of plants, but here we are limiting ourselves to just one which was frequently used as a colorant in woodblock prints and fabrics. In Kosode: 16Th-19th Century Textiles from the Nomura Collection: 16th-19th Century Textiles from the Nomura Collection by Amanda Mayer Stinchecum (pp. 202-3) notes that this plant grows throughout Japan, but especially in Shikoku. The leaves which contain indigotin and should be harvested in July through September and in November before flowering. The fresh leaves should be fermented or dried and/or composted.

In the earliest times the Japanese indigo leaves were chopped up in water. Later during the Nara-Heian periods they were fermented in water. During the Edo period they were fermented in lye water combined with other ingredients.

The resultant colors ranged from a pale to bright blue according to the number of leaves per quantity of water. Combined with other dyes a larger range of colors could be produced including lavender, fake purple and black.

In a web page posted by the University of Bristol "...Dr. David Hill of the School of Biological Sciences describes his quest to provide the modern world with a natural alternative to synthetic dyes." This is fascinating stuff. Especially his information about the source of indigo itself: "Indigo producing plants do not actually contain indigo but the leaves of these plants before they flower contain a substance which, when extracted from the leaf, forms indigo by absorbing oxygen from the air. Indigo is notoriously insoluble in nearly all commonly used solvents, and especially in water, so the indigo formed in the extracts settles out as a precipitate quite easily."

That might explain something I noticed while researching this subject. While searching for additional material to post here I ran across a beautiful page in English from a German language web site operated by Dorothea Fischer. After a brief correspondence she gave me permission to post the three images to the left. However, for a fuller and richer understanding of the entire process - especially as it pertains to fabrics, but clearly not greatly removed from the methods for producing early ukiyo indigo inks -

I would urge you to visit her web page devoted to this topic. It is astounding.

http://www.lustauffarben.de/faerben-faerberknoeterich-englisch.html

I want to thank Ms. Fischer - and her friend Friedl who helped in our correspondence - for her contribution in creating this entry.

There is a fascinating scientific article published in 2006 by the Japan Society for Analytical Chemistryentitled:

"Non-Destructive Identification of Blue Colorants in Ukiyo-e Prints by Visible-Near Infrared Reflection Spectrum Obtained with a Portable Spectrophotomer Using Fiber Optics".

They inspected a set of prints from the "36 Views of Fuji" by Hokusai dated ca. 1830-33. Using a non-invasive technique they studied the use of aigami, ai (indigo) and the imported colorant Prussian blue.

What they discovered was amazing - at least for me. The keyblocks were all printed with indigo "...while all color blocks were printed with Prussian blue." Prior to this study it had been assumed that all

of the keyblock lines had also been Prussian blue, but clearly this was not the case. While this information may not interest everyone it is nevertheless remarkable for what it tells us about the production

of what may be the most famous series of Japanese prints ever. The same exact technique was used for Hokusai's famous waterfall series Shokoku taki meguri. There were no exceptions.

Both examples shown here are details from the Fuji series.

One last point: The scientists who wrote this article refer to the source of indigo as knotweed, i.e., Polygonum tinctorium, and not as dyer's knotweed as mentioned above.

Aigami

藍紙

あいがみ

An early organic blue made from the dayflower. It fades quickly. Sometimes it fades to an olive gray. (See 'dayflower' listed below.) 1

Aizuri-e

藍摺絵

あいずりえ

Images printed predominantly in shades of blue. The image to the left is by Eisen and dates from the first half of the 19th century and the Hasui below is from 1933. 1

In Matthi Forrer's book Hokusai (published by Rizzoli in 1988) he praises the boldness shown by Nishimura-ya Yohachi in marketing a series of prints using the costly, imported indigo dye. In 1831 the publisher announced the upcoming series in an advertisement in a novel by Ryūtei Tanehiko: "The thirty-six views of mount Fuji, by the old man zen Hokusai Iitsu, single sheet prints in blue impressions, each sheet featuring one design - now being published." (p. 263) "The note on thecoloring of the series is of particular interest. The term used in the original, aizuri, or 'indigo printing', in fact refers to a new pigment which only became available for woodblock prints close to 1830. However, there are examples of earlier use of this color, often called berurin [べルリン] burau (Berlin blue or Prussian blue). In the second half of the eighteenth century, for example, various painting manuals already make mention of it, sometimes adding that it was hard to come by, since it was imported through the Dutch. In woodblock prints, it appears by exception only, probably first on Osaka surimono from the mid 1810s and the first half of the 1820s. By 1829, the pigment was also available in edo and first used in surimono - where, of course, the matter of costs had not to be taken into serious consideration. Anyway, it still must have been a very precious material and that the commercial publisher Nishimuraya Yohachi dared to announce such a large series employing the novelty, makes the whole undertaking all the more prestigious. Almost by consequence, it may be assumed that the prints were aimed at a small and select audience, willing to pay the accordingly high price. The circumstance that, up to then, a series of pure landscapes of this scope had never been attempted - certainly a risky decision for any publisher to take - should only enhance our admiration for Nishimuraya." (p. 264)

"Prussian blue, I may add, seems to have been employed experimentally form the 1790s but was widely imported only form about the year 1829. The use of this pigment... began with privately issued surimono-prints, and was then extended to fan-prints (mainly) by the artist Eisen). The fashion soon spread to figure-prints as well and, within a year or so, to the landscape, in Hokusai's new series. For the aficionado of the earlier Japanese print, it may be difficult to understand why this 'foreign', mineral colour should so suddenly usurp the place of the delicate and lovely blue pigments that had been favoured hitherto - in. for instance, the prints of Harunobu and Utamaro. The first reason for its adoption was simply the characteristic Japanese love for new things, and their near worship of imported goods. At the same time, the native, vegetable dyes were often fugitive, and blue was particularly susceptible to fading. (Today, indeed, collectors and museums often refuse to lend their early pirnts for extended exhibition, for this very reason.)"

Quoted from: Hokusai: Life and Work, by Richard Lane, E. P. Dutton, 1989, pp. 184-5.

"Prussian blue was not first introduced in Edo. In the 1820s Japan was still closed to foreign trade, and European products all entered Japan through the Dutch settlement in the port of Nagasaki. The first use of Prussian blue on a woodblock print is on the cap of the immortal in a privately published surimono printed in Osaka in the spring of 1825..."

Quote from: Japanese Woodblock Prints: A Catalogue of the Mary A. Ainsworth Collection, by Roger Keyes, Allen Memorial Art Museum, Oberlin College, 1984, p. 42.

Roger Keyes says that the first use of Prussian blue on a woodblock print may have shown up on the cap of an immortal riding a crane. This appears on a surimono by Nagayama Kōin (長山孔寅 or ながやま.こういん) "...printed in Osaka in the spring of 1825". Ibid.

In the catalogue entry #439 on p. 185 of the Ainsworth collection Keyes notes that this print was produced to honor the retirement of the actor Nakamura Utaemon III. This "...print is of special historical interest since Prussian blue seems to be used ont ehimmortal's cap and this color, which is used in so many landscape prints, is said not to have been introduced in Edo until 1828."

Sebastian Izzard in his Kunisada's World (p. 29) provides additional information: "A feature of these prints is the occasional use of Bero-ai - that is, Berlin, or Prussian, blue. The exact date when the synthetic pigment was first imported into Japan by the Dutch is not known. The ukiyo-e scholar Yoshida Teruji quotes an Edo bookseller and haiku poet Seisōdō Tōho as saying in a book of essays that Prussian blue was introduced in 1829 (Bunsei 12) by the artist Ōoka Umpō (1765-1848), who used it in a surimono. Soon afterwards it was taken up by all the surimono artists. Seeing the popularity of these prints, the fan-print publisher Iseya Sōbei first used the pigment the following year on prints by Keisai Eisen. ¶ While Tōho's reminiscence may be true for completely blue-printed works (aizuri-e) - an aizuri-e fan print by Kunisada is seal-dated 5/1830... Bero-ai in fact appears to have been used even earlier, but only in small areas of design and normally to delineate luxury products and accessories. In Kunisada's work the earliest such use appears to be in a painting of 1822-23... Kunisada's fan print of 1825... and an Osaka surimono of the same year have the blue, again in limited areas. The blue is also found on prints collected by Philipp Franz von Siebold, a member of the Dutch trading mission at Dejima island from 1823 until 1829. The pristine quality of these prints is such that von Siebold probably acquired them directly from the publishers when he made an official visit to Edo in 1826... ¶ From all the evidence it seems likely that when first brought in by the Dutch, the synthetic pigment was a luxury, high-priced import. This would explain why it is first found on paintings and then on elaborate, surimono-style prints created for the connoisseur market..., and in small areas of expensive early editions of full-size prints... With the success of the color and its import in greater amounts, the price would have fallen, enabling publishers to use it for monochromatic blue prints."

Aka-e

赤絵

あかえ

Images printed predominantly in shades of red. These prints were often sold door-to-door by monkey trainers in the 18th c. as talismans against smallpox. This is interesting because monkeys were often kept in stables to ward off horse diseases. It is even said that sometime samurai who wanted to spy on their enemy's camp would pose as monkey trainers just to gain admittance.

Also referred to as hōsō-e (疱瘡絵 or ほうそうえ) or smallpox pictures. Originally used in China they were adopted in Japan and often featured images of Shoki, the Demon Queller. His image was also shown on the fifth day of the fifth month or Boy's Day as a similar talisman for warding off evil spirits.

As you can tell from the detail of the Shigemasa (重政 or しげまさ) image to the left a hōsō-e can illustrate something other than a Shoki. In this case it is a Daruma and an owl and an object I can't identify yet.

Akahime

赤姫

あかひめ

"Red princess": There is a sub-subcategory of female theatrical characters referred to as akahime. "The term is used because so many kabuki princesses and samurai daughters wear red, long-sleeved kimono.... The costume, a kabuki invention having no relation with what actual princesses wore, consists of a robe (uchikake) worn over a kimono of red-figured silk or crepe on which designs of flowers, cherry blossoms, chrysanthemums, clouds, a pattern of long-tailed birds called onagadori, and flowing water are embroidered in gold and silk. The kimono is held together by a brilliant gold brocade obi; at the rear of the obi is a long hanging bow. The wig is a fukiwa type with a large silver flower comb attached to it."

Quoted from: New Kabuki Encyclopedia: A Revised Adaptation of kabuki jiten, compiled by Samuel L. Leiter, 1997, p. 8.

Professor Leiter also pointed out that such a princess "...is typically a physically weak, emotionally vulnerable young lady... She is normally in love with a handsome young lord."

Ibid.

The top image to the left represents Sakurahime by Toyokuni III and the one below is from a Yoshitaki print featuring Yaegakihime. Click on the numbers to the right to see the full images.

1, 2

Amagatsu

天児

あまがつ

"A girl received a dagger (mikabashi [ みかばし?]) at birth, as a protective talisman. Another protective device was the godchild (amagatsu), a doll that served the same purpose as [a] purification doll... The child was supposed to transfer into the doll any evil influence that could harm her." She would keep the doll until about her third year. Also, many dolls served the purpose of absorbing evil spirits in early Japan.

Quoted from: The Tale of Genji, by Murasaki Shikibu, translated by Royall Tyler (ロイヤル・タイラー), published by Viking, vol. 1, 2001, p. 350, note #7.

This translation by Royall Tyler is a remarkable accomplishment and a great source for additional material about the world of the Heian period.

Jane Marie Law in Puppets of Nostalgia published by Princeton University Press in 1997 (p. 35) said: "Amagatsu [heavenly infants] in Heian Japan and continuing until the present, various dolls or effigies have been widely used as substitutes for fetuses, infants, and children to protect them from evil influences and disease."

"They are generically called o-san ningyō (birthing dolls)."

These figures are also referred to as katashiro (形代 or かたしろ) or 'substitute figures'.

Sara Francis Fujimura in the January 2006 issue of "Appleseeds" noted that the amagatsu given to a boy at birth stayed with him until he became an adult and then it was burned and the ashes were buried. Baby girls received hōko (這子 or ほうこ). These had "...a soft, white silk body, and a wooden head and spine..." which they kept with them into married life. In ancient times the owner would blow on the doll or rub it against their body to transfer evil spirits from them into this substitute object. Sometimes they would throw them into river to wash away the bad luck.

In Ningyō: The Art of the Human Figurine Shigeki Kawakami states that amagatusu were being made by Heian times. "There are no extant examples of amagatsu from before the Middle Ages, but even those made during the Edo period remained faithful to the original designs. Amagatsu are made with cylindirical sticks arranged into a T-shape - expressive of a body and arms - onto which a white, silk cloth-covered head is attached." Kawakami continues: "Hōko are white silk dolls stuffed with cotton. Their production is detailed in a work about childbirth form Muromachi period entitled, O-san-no-Kishiki. The name hōko means 'crawling baby,' and its form represents crawling posture of an infant." These dolls were traditionally made on the same day as the birth. "By the time of the Edo period, these two types of figurines were treated as a pair; amagatsu came to represent boys, and hōko, girls." (Japan Society, Inc., 1995, p. 11)

In The Pillow Book of Sei Shōnagon (translated by Ivan Morris, Penguin Books, 1979, footnot 229, p. 314) there is an interesting refence to a royal birth: "The delivery of a Heian Empress, however, was attended by a good deal of impressive ceremonial. Religious services took place for several days in the Imperial birth chamber, and the birth itself was witnessed by numerous white-clad courtiers. Thsi was follow by ceremonial bathing, after which a sword and a tiger's head were shaken in front of the infant and rice scattered about the room - all to keep evil spirits at bay."

Amanojaku

天邪鬼

あまのじゃく

The devil figure beneath a temple guardian; a perverse person. In the glossary section of The Yanagita Kunio Guide to the Japanese Folk Tale, edited and translated by Fanny Hagin Mayer, amanojaku is said to be "A demon with feminie attributes." Matsumae Takeshi in "The Origin and Growth of the Worship of Amaterasu" argues that before there was the myth of the sun goddess there were a number of other myths popular among the people. In one of them the a giant, Amanojaku, played a good role. At that time there were seven suns in the sky which all appeared together creating great heat. So, Amanojaku, using a bow and arrows shot down all but one of these. In The Yanagita Kunio Guide to the Japanese Folk Tale (Indiana University Press, 1989, pp. 5-6) there is the legend of Urikohime (瓜子姫 or うりこひめ) or the Melon Maid. In this version an old woman finds a melon floating down a river. When she and her husband open it a beautiful little girl appears. As she grows larger she weaves every day. After a number of years the old couple decide to their 'daughter' to the village shrine festival. They go into town to buy a sedan chair to carry Urikohime in. While away an amanojaku comes along and urges that the young weaver let her in which she does. Once inside the amanojaku overpowers the Melon Maid, leads her outside, strips her and ties her to a persimmon tree. When the elderly couple return they find what they think is their 'daughter' sitting in her usual place weaving away as always. "They put who they thought was Urikohime into the chair and set out for the shrine, but the real Urikohime cried out from behind the persimmon tree, 'Don't put Urikohime in the chair! Only give the amanojaku a ride.' Greatly surprised, the old man cut off the head of the amanojaku and threw it into the millet patch. The stalk of millet is red because of this."

Ame

雨

あめ

Rain

Carlos F., one of our friendly contributors, suggested that we add a section on rain. He sent us the detailed image above. It is by Yoshitoshi.. We have added the detail of the frogs in the rain by Kuniyoshi to the left. The full print shows little frogs just above the signature. Below the Kuniyoshi is a detail from a Kunisada print. In time we will add commentary about rain in general and how it was viewed within traditional Japanese culture. This is just our preliminary entry.

I want to thank Carlos for making this suggestion and others which will be added to this site later.

All of the standard dictionaries translate amagaeru (雨蛙 or あまがえ) as tree frog. However, Mock Joya refers to it as a rain frog and that translation is certainly commonsensical. "There are many kinds of frogs in the country. There are grotesque toads, to which are attributed evil spirits. Ao-gaeru, or green frogs are also called ama-gaeru or rain frogs, and it is said that their singing will bring rain." I have no way of knowing if the rain and the green frogs in this picture are an example of this belief, but they may be.

Quoted from: Mock Joya's Things Japanese, p. 147.

Amerindian(s)

アメリカ原住民

According to the Oxford English Dictionary the term Amerind was not coined until circa 1900 many years after the creation of the images seen to the left. When Sadahide (1807-1873) drew his vision of native born Americans it probably didn't matter to him what they were called. Clearly he was working from a foreign model.

Fanciful concepts of foreigners were nothing new to the Japanese. Europeans were originally referred to as namban (南蛮 or なんばん) which literally translates as 'southern barbarians.' Even after the forced opening of Japan representations of foreigners were often rather exotic. For example, the image at the bottom shows a hirsute, newborn baby boy in his bath. At that time many Japanese believed that a child born of a Japanese mother and a foreign father would come out of the womb looking and acting like this. (Medieval Europeans believed that when Jesus was born he could walk, talk and read and why not?)

Before you are too quick to think the Japanese overly ignorant and superstitious drag out your copy of Herodotus. In Book IV of his "History" he describes a race of people who are born totally bald, flat nosed and with extremely long chins and who grow up that way. This was true of both sexes. But Herodotus was not completely gullible when he stated that "...these bald-headed men say (though I do not believe it) that the mountains are inhabited by men with goats' feet; and that after one has passed beyond these, others are found who sleep through six months of the year." Even this stretched his credulity.

Our great correspondent E. sent us the Sadahide images. E. said: "Leafing through some oddments the other day, I found this double-page bookplate by Sadahide and thought of you! From an 1855 book Meriken shinshi ' News from America' it purports to show how they perceived the native Americans. I don't really think that it will add anything to your index/glossary but I thought you might be amused."

Well, I was obviously more than amused and even though E. is right it doesn't add a lot to these pages I just felt it was too good to pass up. Thanks E!

Andon

行灯

( or 行燈)

あんどん

Lantern: "...an ancient type of night lamp, consisting of a square or round frame of wood covered with strong rice papaer, the top and obttom being open. It is lit with rapeseed oil and a rush-weed wick on an oil plate inside. It is not used today except as a decoration."

Quote from: Dictionary Japanese Culture, by Setsuko Kojima and Gene A. Crane, Heian International, Inc., 1991, p. 9.

Tōrō (灯籠 or とうろう) is the generic term for lantern. Andons are only one type. "Smaller standing lanterns, usually made of iron, are known as andon. Andon became poular during the Edo period (1600-1868) for interior illumination, especially within the home. They usually rest on four legs and have cut-out designs decorating their sides... ¶Andon come in many different shapes and sizes and serve a decorative as well as utilitarian function. Some andon are made of paper with a rigid wooden frame and open top. These usually contained lamps burning rapeseed oil or candles; the modern version is often wired for electricity. One of their most attractive features is the oil plate (aburazara [油皿 or あぶらざら]) designed to catch the dripping oil; these are often decorated with beautiful pictorial designs and are highly valued today."

Quote from: Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan, vol. 4, p. 368, entry by Nakasato Toshikatsu.

See also our entry on chōchin to contrast the difference between the andon and the hanging lantern.

Ankō

鮟鱇

あんこう

A fish which is referred to by several names: Anglerfish, monkfish, frogfish, et al. An ugly bottom-feeder which was eaten in pre-modern times "...by the common people, especially in Edo (now Tokyo)..." to welcome the arrival of winter.

Kodanasha Encyclopedia of Japan, vol. 1, 1983, p. 56.

This fish served as an element/prop in certain early, i.e., late 18th c. kabuki plays where they are seen being carried by a string. They are still used in modern cooking. One web site had a great photo of Julia Child preparing one of those ugly suckers. (We will add images when or if they become available.)