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JAPANESE PRINTS A MILLION QUESTIONS TWO MILLION MYSTERIES |
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Ukiyo-e Prints浮世絵版画
Port Townsend, Washington |
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Index/Glossary
Sekichiku thru Sh |
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The white lilies are being used
to mark addition of the iris posted at commons.wikimedia.org by D. L. Lindwall was used in March and April. |
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TERMS FOUND ON THIS PAGE:
Sekichiku, Sen, Sendai
Hagi, Sengaki,
Seno Jūrō Kaneuji, Seppuku, Seriage, Seridashi, Settsugekka,
Shigenobu, Shigoki, Shiitake tabo, Shika, Shima, Shimenawa, Shini-e, Shini sōzoku, Shintai, Shinzō, Shiokuni, Shiori, Shippō, Shiranami-mono, Shiratama, Shirizaya-no-tachi,
Shishi, Shishimai,
Shokudai,
Shōmenzuri,
石竹, 銭, 先代萩,
線書き,
瀬尾十郎兼氏, 切腹, 迫上, 迫出, 雪月花,
椎茸髱, 鹿, 縞, 七五三縄 or 注連縄, 死絵, 新造, 死に装束, 神体, 新造, 汐汲み, 栞, 七宝, 白浪物, 白玉,
尻鞘の太刀,
獅子, 獅子舞,
燭台, 正面摺,
棕櫚 and 手燭
せきちく, せん,
せんだいはぎ, せんがき,
せりだし, せつげっか,
しばらく, しで, しげのぶ, しごき, しいたけたぼ, しか, しま, しめなわ, しにえ, しにしょうぞく, しんたい, しんぞう, しおくみ, しおり, しっぽう, しらなみもの, しらたま,
しりざやのたち, しし, ししまい,
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One more note about this page and all of the others on this site: If two or more sources are cited they may be completely contradictory. I have made no attempt to referee these differences, but have simply repeated them for your edification or use. Quote anything you find here at your own risk and with a whole lot of salt. |
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TERM/NAME |
KANJI/KANA |
DESCRIPTION/ DEFINITION/ CATEGORY Click on the yellow numbers to go to linked pages. |
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Sekichiku |
石竹
せきちく |
Pink motif used as a family crest or mon. |
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Sen |
銭
せん |
This motif represents the sen which is one hundredth of a yen. "In a society said to despise both merchants and money, the appearance of coins as a heraldic motif may seem surprising." Originally the Japanese did not mint their own coins, but imported them from China. This formed a major part of their trade.
Coins were also important in the Buddhist death rituals. Six coins were placed by the body of the deceased to help the soul on its journey to the nether world. This would act as alms paid to six gods of the afterlife.
Source and quote from: The Elements of Japanese Design, by John W. Dower, p. 108.
Mock Joya gives a slightly different explanation for the use of the funereal coins: "...copper coins, or pieces of paper on which the outlines of coins were roughly painted, were placed in the coffin. The ancients believed that Sanzu-no-kawa (Sanzu River) divided this world from Gokuraku (Paradise), and so coins were required to pay for the ferry ride across the river. Since they also believed it was a lengthy journey to Gokuraku straw sandals and a strong staff to lean on were placed in the coffin to aid the traveler."
Quoted from: Mock Joya's Things Japanese (p. 317) |
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Sendai Hagi |
先代萩 せんだいはぎ |
Alternate name for the kabuki play "Date Kurabe Okuni Kabuki" 1 |
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Sengaki |
線書き せんがき |
An outline drawing used to
cut the key block.
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First the artist does a loose, conceptual drawing of what will be the final product. If it is figurative more emphasis is generally put on facial features than the rest of the drawing. From this initial step - see our entry on genga - a much more precise outline drawing is prepared. Hiroshi Yoshida in discussing his technique mentions that he uses minogami which has been sized with dōsa. "It is important that the lines should be clear and definite. Ink is to be avoided, for it blurs when the paper is pasted face down on the block to be cut. When taking a pen, sumi should be used." ( Japanese Woodblock Printing, 1939, p. 15) Of course, Yoshida is describing a 20th century method using 20th century tools. He even suggests that one not rush the process. "One should hang it on the wall for a number of days and contemplate it, thinking about the later processes which must eventually follow. If one is too hasty, and it is found necessary to alter or add something afterward, it will be extremely difficult to make the change. It is very essential that one should give all the thought possible just here, before pasting the sen-gaki on the block for cutting." (Ibid.) The artist should be able to extrapolate from this lined piece to the finished product - even the colors which will be used. ¶ Yoshida addressed certain technical problems which could arise. For example, "If two or more colours meet, an extension of one of the lines which is not to remain in the print afterward is generally necessary in the outline drawing for guidance to secure the exact fitting together of the different colours to be applied. Suppose there are to be some glowing clouds in the sunset sky, and a part of them is hidden behind a mountain. When a separate block is made for the clouds and another for the mountain, it is difficult to know afterward the exact position of the clouds in relation to the mountain and just where the line of the cloud touches the slope of the mountain. So the line of the cloud must be extended to cross the line of the mountain slope, thus indicating the exact location which the artist wished to give the clouds. In this case the unnecessary part of the line known as muda-bori [無駄彫 or むだぼり], or "unnecessary cutting," which was extended into the mountain should be taken away after the trial printing is made, and the exact position fixed by the register marks." (p. 16) |
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千社札 せんじゃふだ |
Small prints posted on shrine pillars by pilgrims. Literally "thousand shrine slip". These are said to be remnants of ancient beliefs in the the power of words combined with pilgrimages. Rebecca Salter in her Japanese Popular Prints: From Votive Slips to Playing Cards (p. 94) tells us that "Chinese pilgrims carried a protective seal which they impressed in the soil of the road to ward off evil spirits as they went. In Japan, it was recommended to write the kanji for 'tiger' on the palm of the hand to terrify wild animals and evil spirits. When crossing a river, the traveller was advised to carry something bearing the kanji for 'earth/ground' to ensure safe passage to the other bank. Senjafuda... are an extension of the belief in the power of the word..." Today individuals commission printed slips with their names and then travel en masse with others to plaster their prints on the buildings "...at each holy site." (Ibid.) ¶ "The classic senjafuda for pasting was and still is a woodblock, printed in sumi ink on a slip of paper about..." 5" high by 2" wide. (Ibid., p. 96) |
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仙人 せんにん |
Also known as a 'sen'. In Hepburn's dictionary - first published in 1867 - it defines this term as "A sort of imaginary beings, who live amongst the mountains; genii, fairy." Sen ni naru means to become a genius. However, most modern dictionaries define it as hermit or wizard. |
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"Persons manifesting the ideals of religious Taoism, who were imagined to have attained supernatural powers, especially immortality, by means of ascetic exercises practiced in remote mountain regions." Similar figures in India, the rishi, shared many of the traits of the sennin. They had psychic powers and could levitate. "In China, adepts were believed to preserve a youthful appearance indefinitely by drinking elixirs containing such ingredients as powdered cinnamon, mica, deer horn, and cinnabar, and allegedly could levitate, ride clouds, and make the wind blow. The concept of [these] xianren was introduced to Japan along with Taoism, and the earliest references to Japanese sennin appear in Nara-period (710-794) legends concerning Ōtomo no Sennin, Azumi no Sennin, and Kume no Sennin." The founder of the Shugendō cult was said to be a sennin. "The term was adopted by Buddhists and occasionally used as a designation for the Buddha, because of his mastery over life and death, but more often for religious figures of great accomplishment who belonged to heterodox faiths." (Source and quotes from: "sennin" by Inokuchi Shōji in the Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan, vol. 7, p. 67)
There is an unusual reference to sennin in Mock Joya's Things Japanese (p. 364): "Sennin (hermits) were... said to have lived on pine needles." This makes a reference on page 63 in Japanese Sword Mounts by Helen Gunsaulus that much more comprehensible in a description of an elaborately worked tsuba: "Beneath an old pine-tree with golden needles stands the Chinese sage, Fung Kan, known in Japan as Bukan Zenji. He is one of the rishi or sennin (sien nung), beings endowed with supernatural powers who enjoy rest for a period after death, being for a time exempt from transmigration.... Bukan Zenjin is always accompanied by a tiger..."
In Ernest Eitel's volume, Hand-book of Chinese Buddhism, Being a Sanskrit-Chinese Dictionary..., originally published in 1888, defined 仙人, here spelled 'richi', are separated into five categories. In India it was believed that a mortal could become an immortal after a short transitional period instead of the 1,000,000 years for the normal transmigration. However, in China the Buddhists and Taoist thought the change could happen immediately. The five classes are: 1) 天仙, the deva rishi, "who are believed to reside in the Seven Circular Rocks which surround Mount Meru; 2) 神仙, spirits who roam about in the air. In Japan these are referred to as shinsen or Taoist immortals; 3) 人仙 are human rishis or immortals who dwell among men; 4) 地仙 are earth rishis or immortals who live in caves; and 5) 鬼仙 or roving demons who form "...a 7th class of sentient beings." (p. 130)
There is a Nō play entitled Ikkaku sennin (一角仙人 or いっかくせんいん) or The One-horned Immortal by Komparu Zembō (金春禅鳳 or こんばるぜんぼ: 1453?-1532?). In 1921 when Arthur Waley gave a synopsis of this play and a translation he treated it with some discretion and delicacy leaving the source material somewhat hazy. Waley said: "A Rishi lived in the hills near Benares. Under strange circumstances [Waley added a footnote here - in French - which did little to clarify matters] a roe bore him a son whose form was human, save that a single horn grew on his forehead, and that he had stag's hoofs instead of feet. He was given the name Ekashringa, 'One-horn.' " (Quoted from: The Nō Plays of Japan by Arthur Waley, p. 245) "Under strange circumstances..." ¶ After much digging we found an unadulterated source for this play. Based on a common theme of the seduction of a hermit/celibate by a courtesan says: "In the country of Vārāņasī there was an immortal (sage) living on a mountain. One day in the fall when he was urinating into his bath basin, he caught sight of two deer copulating. Sensual thoughts germinated in him and his seed flowed into the basin. The female deer drank [from the basin] and soon became pregnant. ¶ In due month she gave birth to a baby, who was human except that it had a horn on its head and the hooves of a deer. When the deer was about to deliver, she went to the immortal's dwelling, and she [left the baby there] to be entrusted to the immortal, and then she left." ¶ When the immortal came out of his cave he saw the baby and knew it was his. He raised this hybrid child and educated him in many mystical ways so that the child "...obtained five supernatural faculties." ¶ Later the single-horned figure was climbing the mountain when a torrent of rain came down causing him to slip. "...he fell and injured [himself]. In a rage, he chanted an order to stop the rain. Because of his virtue, all dragons and gods no longer sent rain. Consequently crops failed and people were pining and could not make a living." The local king consulted with his councilors one of whom told him the cause of their problems. So, the king offered half of his holdings to anyone who could make the immortal lose his "five supernatural faculties" and bring back the rain. A famous 'harlot' - Waley's term - said she could if the creature had any human in him and in proof she would come back to the court riding his back. ¶ "The courtesan then hired five hundred carts to carry five hundred beautiful women, and five hundred wagons to carry all kinds of pleasure pills made from herbs and all kinds of strong wine..." They dressed in clothes made from bark making them look like hermits and set up their shelters near the cave of the one-horned creature. He saw them and approached, was charmed and seduced and in the end the 'harlot' asked the rishi to bathe with her. She aroused such passions in him through her touch that he lost his supernatural powers and it began to pour for seven days and seven nights. When the fruit and pills and wine ran out the creature asked for more, but the 'harlot' said there were no more except at her home. However, after they set out in that direction the woman said she was too tired to walk and the creature offered to carry her. ¶ In time the one-horned creature was allowed to return to his home and there he relearned what he had lost and regained his five powers. (Source and quotes: The Water God's Temple of the Guangsheng Monastery: Cosmic Function of Art, Ritual and Theater by Anning Jing, pp. 179-81) ¶ "In the Nō play... the Rishi has over-powered the Rain-dragons, and shut them up in a cave. Shāntā, a noble lady of Benares, is sent to tempt him. The Rishi yields to her and loses his magic power. There comes a mighty rumbling from the cave." (Waley, p.245)
In Traditional Japanese Theater edited by Karen Brazell (p. 68) is an even more cogent description of the theme discussed above: "The tale of a powerful ascetic who, having locked up the rain gods and caused a drought, has his powers destroyed by a beautiful woman is familiar to audiences throughout Asia. In Japan, popular versions found in the Taiheiki (chapter 37) and the Konjaku monogatari (book 5, tale 4), as well as in the Noh play Ikkaku sennin (One-horned wizard)..." When seduced "The wizard joins her dance until he collapses, and the dragon gods, played by child actors, are able to escape from the cave (a stage prop), taunt the wizard... and cause the rains to fall." ¶ A variant on this was written for the kabuki theater, Saint Narukami. It strays considerably from the Nō play.
Above is a blue stalactite from a Polish cave. This photo was posted at commons.wikimedia.org by Tanja5. Maybe they have sennin in Poland too. |
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Seno Jūrō Kaneuji |
瀬尾十郎兼氏 せんお.じゅうろう.かねうじ |
Character from the kabuki play "Genpei Nunobiki no Taki" 1 |
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Seppuku |
切腹 せっぷく |
A form of ritual suicide through disembowelment. Also known as harakiri. |
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Seriage |
迫上
せりあげ |
A trap lift for actors.
"The stage itself, in wing space, position of lighting instruments, facilities for flying scenery and so forth, follows the Western model. However, the stage retains the use of machines which were developed by the Japanese independently of their development in other countries. These are the seridashi, the seriage, and the mawari-butai."
"The first use of the seriage... appeared in 1736."
Quotes from: The Kabuki Theatre, by Earle Ernst, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1974, p. 29.
"A half century prior to the revolving stage, various types of traps were introduced to kabuki. Generically, all these devices, which raise actors or scenery up to the stage level through a hole in the floor or lower them out of sight, are called seri, literally 'press' or 'push.' When a trap is raised, this is referred to as seriage, 'push up,' or seridashi, 'push out.'
Quote from: Studies in Kabuki: Its Acting, Music, and Historical Context, by Brandon, Malm and Shively, Published by the Institute of Culture and Communication East-West Center, 1978, p. 116. |
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Seridashi |
迫出 せりだし |
A trap lift for scenery for the kabuki theater.
"The seridashi is a trap-lift which brings scenery from below to the level of the stage floor and vice versa. This invention of Namiki Shōzō seems to have first appeared in November 1727."
Quote from: The Kabuki Theatre, by Earle Ernst, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1974, p. 29. |
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Settsugekka |
雪月花
せつげっか
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Snow, Moon, Flowers: A popular motif in Japanese art which has its origins in 6th century China intellectual theory. Composed by Xie He [謝赫] the "Six Rules of Painting" were published in three volumes: 'Snow', 'Moon' and 'Flowers'.
Merrily Baird stated: "The Japanese term 'snow, moon, and flowers' (settsugekka) refers to the Three Beauties of Nature, with each of the beauties said to be a reminder of the transience of life."
Source: Merrily Baird, Rizzoli International Publications, Symbols of Japan: Thematic Motifs in Art and Design, 2001, p. 38.
To the left are three details from a series of prints by Hiroshige originally published in ca. 1843. The series carried the title Meisho setsugekka (Famous Places of Snow, Moon and Flowers). |
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釈迦
しゃか |
This is the Japanese name for the historical Buddha Shakyamuni 563 BC to 483 BC. His is also referred to as Siddhartha.
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Shakujō |
錫杖
しゃくじょう
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"...a wooden staff with metal cap on which a metal ring is loosely hung so that a jingling noise is made in walking. This noise is intended to warn beetles, snakes, and other small creatures on which the monk might possibly tread of his approach so that they can get out of the way."
Quoted from: The Shambhala Dictionary of Buddhism and Zen, p. 192.
A pilgrim's staff is also referred to as a kongodue (金剛杖 or こんごうづえ). Because it warns creature of its approach it is known in China as an alarm staff. But the jingling serves another function in that it is meant to drown out all other worldly sounds from the ears of the carrier.
The Buddha was said to have used a sandalwood staff with pewter head and rings.
Source: Chinese Symbolism and Art Motifs, by C.A.S. Williams, Castle Books, 1974 edition, p. 5.
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Shamisen |
三味線
しゃみせん
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"A three-stringed plucked lute that was originally associated with the urban world of the pleasure quarters and theaters of the Edo period (1600-1868) and later became a concert instrument as well. It is called samisen in the Kyōto-Ōsaka area and the sangen when used in classical chamber music."
The shamisen may have its origins in a similiar instrument found in China, but definitely is traceable to one from the Ryūkū Islands. "Both the Okinawan (sanshin or jamisen) and the Chinese (sanxian or san-hsien) forms are still used today, but they differ greatly from the instrument used in Japan."
Shamisens vary in length from 3.6' to 4.6' according to the sound desired. "They are generally distinguished by the thickness of their unfretted fingerboard, but other differences are found in string gauges, bridge weights, body sizes, and the design and size of the plectrums (bachi). The wooden quince, and the heads which cover the front and back of the body are cat or dog skin. Pegs and plectrums are ivory, wood, or plastic. Strings are twisted silk or nylon." Of course the plastic and nylon parts were not available during the Edo period.
Source and quotes from: Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan entry by William P. Malm (vol. 7, pp. 76-7) |
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The image to the left is a detail from a print by Eizan showing a geisha holding her shamisen. The detail below shows what is probably intended to be an ivory plectrum or bachi (撥 or ばち).
"A geisha is often called a neko [i.e., cat]; but it is because cats' hides are used in making shamisen, their musical instrument. But some say that it is because a geisha is also to be petted."
Quoted from: Mock Joya's Things Japanese (p. 114)
According to Mock Joya the shamisen is of unknown origin and may have originated in Siam. It was introduced into Japan via the Ryūkūs during the Eiroku era (1558-1570). "It was a biwa (lute) player named Nakashoji who took interest in the new instrument when it first came to Sakai." In the Ryūkūs it was called a jahisen (snake-skin string) because that was what was used to cover the sound box. There it was played with a bow, but Nakashoji replaced that with the plectrum he used to play the biwa. He also made sound changes. "As it was impossible to obtain snake skins for the instrument, he covered it with cat-skin." Source and quotes from: Mock Joya's Things Japanese (pp. 494-5). |
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Shank's Mare |
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A classic, serial, comic novel by Jippensha Ikku ( (1765-1831: 十返舎一九 or じっぺんしゃ.いっく) which first appeared in 1802. It follows the adventures of two "amiable scoundrels", Yajirobei and Kitahachi, as they travel from Edo to Kyōto via the Tōkaidō road. The title in Japanese is the Tōkaidō Hizakurige ( 東海道膝栗毛 or とうかいどう.ひざくりげ). Although this book is a bit ribald it should be a must read for anyone interested in the culture of that age.
The original publisher in Edo may have been Yamashiro-ya Sahei (山城屋佐兵衛 or やましろや.さへえ).
For anyone who is interested 'traveling by shank's mare' according to the Merriam Webster dictionary is traveling on 'one's own legs.' This expression dates back to ca. 1795. This first translation into English by Thomas Satchell "...was published by subscription in Kobe in 1929." For that reason it had a very small audience until it was reprinted in 1960 by Tuttle. This copy is from 1992. Satchell did not permit his name to appear on the title page. It shows up at the end in Romaji. He moved to Japan in 1899 and became editor of the Yokohama Japan Herald in 1902. Despite being married to a Japanese woman and having two daughters he was arrested and interned until the end of the war. He died in 1956. Ikku added his preface 12 years after the first part was published. In it he states: "You will find many bad jokes and much that is worthless in the book, which is moreover overburdened with many poems where sound and sense conflict. Along with this there is much of the one-night love-traffic of the roads..." |
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It is said that Basil Hall Chamberlain called this novel "the cleverest outcome of the Japanese pen." James Seguin De Benneville in his 1906 volume Sakurambō called Jippensha Ikku the Japanese Rabelais. I have read Rabelais and would consider this a compliment. Some of my friends wouldn't agree. In 1908 William George Aston noted that Ikku's novel was printed in 12 parts starting, as we said, in 1802 and finishing in 1822. "It occupies a somewhat similar position in Japan to that of the Pickwick Papers in this country [i.e., England], and is beyond question the most humorous and entertaining book in the Japanese language. (A History of Japanese Literature, published by W. Heinemann, 1908, p. 371) Later Aston adds: "Still, people of nice taste had better not read the Hizakurige." To this he piles on: "The great drawback to the fun of the Hizakurige is that it is unrelieved by any serious matter." Here Aston is comparing Ikku to Shakespeare. (p. 373)
The finest example of the kokkeibon (滑稽本 or こっけいぼん) or 'funny book' genre may be this novel. "The work that established the importance of the kokkeibon was unquestionably Tōkaidō Dōchū Hizakurige (Travels on Foot on the Tōkaidō) by Jippensha Ikku." Published in 43 volumes because the "...public demand again and again compelled Ikku to prolong the adventures of his irrepressible heroes, Kitahachi and Yajirobei. These utterly plebeian, typically Edo men are full of a lively if coarse humor, and have a knack of getting involved in comic and usually unsuccessful intrigues with women. The readers' interest in bowel movements was apparently inexhaustible; the number of references to soiled loincloths suggests that the subject was particularly enjoyed, and indicate also the general level of humor." Neither of the heroes cares about honor or reputation and are driven by lust.
Source and quotes from: World Within Walls: Japanese Literature of the Pre-Modern Era 1600-1867, by Donald Keene, published by Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976, pp. 412-13. |
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Shibaraku |
暫
しばらく |
"Stop Right There!": One of the greatest and most dramatic moments of the kabuki theater occurs when the hero is walking down the hanamichi or walkway toward the stage dressed in a spectacular persimmon red costume. Just as a murder is about to take place he yells "Shibaraku".
This role was created by Ichikawa Danjūrō II (1688-1758). In time this became the opening act of the season opener no matter what play was being performed. "Just a Minute! is one of the finest examples of the Danjūrō family style (ie no gei), its hero powered by godlike qualities of magnificence, might, and theatricality but also contained roles of every type (yakugara), thus effectively presenting the members of the new troupe through the display of their varied talents." (Quote from: Kabuki Plays on Stage: Brilliance and Bravado, 1697-1766, vol. 1, edited by James R. Brandon and Samuel L. Leiter, University of Hawai'i Press, 2002, p. 44)
"More than a play, Shibaraku is a time-honored ritual based on the folk tradition of good repelling evil. The semihumorous plot, replete with witty wordplay, reflects the pleasure-seeking spirit typical of the common people in the Edo period." (Quote from: The Kabuki Guide, by Masakatsu Gunji, Kodansha International, 1987, p. 122)
The detail to the left is from a print by Toyokuni I.
The term shibaraku can be translated a number of ways: little while; Wait A Second!; Wait A Minute!; Wait!; Stop Right There!; and probably a few more I am not aware of. |
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Shide |
紙垂 しで |
The zig-zag, cut paper streamers attached to a sacred wand made from a sakaki (榊 or さかき) tree used in Shinto rituals to ward off evil spirits. They also are added to shimenawa which are the twisted straw rope which indicate a sacred space.
(See haraegushi, tamagushi, sakaki, nusa and shimenawa.) |
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Shigenobu |
重宣
しげのぶ |
Early name of Hiroshige II 1, 2
I am so sorry. I made a terrible mistake several years ago and it wasn't until now that I realized my error. This Shigenobu is not 重信. That Shigenobu had actually been a pupil and son-in-law of Hokusai and not Hiroshige. This Shigenobu had been the son-in-law and pupil of Hiroshige and his name is represented by the character 重宣. If that weren't confusing enough there were at least five print artists of different eras who used 重信.
In a February 7, 1922 sale catalogue of the Alexis Rouart collection written by Frederick W. Gookin it says on p. 262 "Pupil and son-in-law of Hiroshige. Personal name Sukuki [sic] Chimpei. First studio name Shigenobu; also signed Ichiyūsai. In February 1859 (first month Ansei 6) became Hiroshige II. In 1865, he divorced his wife that she might marry his fellow pupil Shigemasa, to whom he then gave the Hiroshige name, taking that of Risshō for himself, and retiring to Yokohama. He also signed as Hirochika II in his later years."
The image to the left is by Hiroshige II, formerly known as Shigenobu. As one of his major critics had said "Some of the work of Hiroshige II is very good..." Very good indeed. This print is a masterpiece. |
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Shigenobu/Hiroshige II has received some very bad press. The stage was set by the first decades of the 20th century to look rather unkindly on the work of Hiroshige's artistic heir. Writers like Arthur Davison Ficke were hardly sparing in their criticisms. ¶ We know that some of Hiroshige's last series of prints, '100 Views of Edo', was published posthumously and that several of the prints were designed by Shigenobu. In his Chats on Japanese Prints Ficke placed this series in a section entitled 'Fifth Period: The Downfall' and described the views of 'Yedo' as having "...119 plates, including, besides much rubbish, 25 masterpieces". (Published by Frederick A. Stokes Company, 1917, p. 393)
Ficke continued to disparage the late works by Hiroshige which Shigenobu helped produce. It would seem most of Ficke's criticisms were aimed at the latter: "...certain of the plates are of so banal a character that it is impossible to believe them to be from the great man's hand. Doubtless the distinction between the work of the two artists cannot always be drawn with certainty; but as a general rule we may regard the work as that of Hiroshige II if we find the figures stiff and wooden, if the composition is lacking in any central unity, or if some large ugly object is thrust into the foreground with the hope of thus putting the background into its proper relative place." (Ibid.) ¶ Ficke wasn't totally unkind to Shigenobu and did throw him a bit of a bone - a very qualified bone. "Some of the work of Hiroshige II is very good; upon the accidental destruction of one of the plates of the 'One Hundred Yedo Series,' he produced a new design that is admirable. But he lacked originality, and at his best merely trod in the footsteps of his master. Most of his designs are flat and uninspired. About 1865 he fell into disgrace, and moved to Yokohama, where he gave up his name, and is said to have worked henceforth under the name of Hirochika II. He died in 1869." (Ibid., pp. 397-8)
Five years after Ficke dumped on Shigenobu Basil Stewart tried to put the last nail in the coffin. Stewart conceded that Hiroshige claimed on the title page that this was the "masterpiece of his life", but Stewart truly questioned this conclusion. He claimed that certain prints in the series could only be by Shigenobu because the master never would have created such inanities. He referred to the "rear view of a horse" and the "boatman with the hairy legs" and others as being "...equally catastrophic" and could only be blamed on Shigenobu whose work displayed a crudeness which could only be his own. Stewart even believed that Shigenobu designed an 1855 Tokaido series which Hiroshige then put his signature to. (Source: A Guide to Japanese Prints and Their Subject Matter, by Basil Stewart, originally published by Dutton, 1922, p. 22)
On page 23 Stewart said: "Prints in which some large object, such as a tree-trunk, the mast of a ship, the body and legs of a horse, is thrust prominently into the foreground, blotting out the view, and thus spoiling the whole effect of the picture, may generally be ascribed to Hiroshige II; the method of indicating the foliage of trees may also sometimes serve to distinguish between master and pupil." |
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However, not everyone has
agreed wholeheartedly with Ficke and Stewart's appraisals. In the Brooklyn
Museum catalogue of the "100 Views of Edo" it states: "Hairy legs so
prominently placed evoke distaste among Western scholars of Hiroshige's work
and hence a negative reaction to the print that is not found in Japanese
literature on the artist." (Quoted from: One Hundred Views of Edo: Woodblock
Prints by Ando Hiroshige, by Mikhail Uspensky, Parkstone Press, 1997, p.
164) ¶ Uspensky notes that scholars/connoisseurs who found the hairy leg
offensive found the rear view of the horse even more 'vulgar'. Not only were
they put off by the perspective of where the viewing must be standing or
squatting but also by the horse shit droppings seen on the ground. Uspensky
doesn't even mention the horse's scrotum which is clearly visiible. No
wonder they wanted to blame Shigenobu for this breech of good taste. In the 19th century John Ruskin, the English artist and critic, who was raised in stately homes filled with magnificent Greek and Roman statuary, married an incredibly beautiful young woman. However, it is said that on their wedding night Ruskin was unable to consummate the marriage when he realized that his new bride had pubic hair. The statues of ancient goddesses didn't have any and so he was repulsed that his 'goddess' would. They divorced or got an annulment or some such thing and she went on to marry the painter John Everett Millais who was obviously less easily offended or if he was he was able to overcome his personal disgust. A personal note: I have a rather large library of books dealing with Japanese art and culture. Basil Stewart's A Guide to Japanese Prints and Their Subject Matter and don't recommend it when asked. Years ago when I first worked for a man who sold Japanese prints he had a major customer who thought Stewart wrote the bible on them and believed every word of it. He quoted it often and used it to guide his purchases. My boss sold or gave away copies of Stewart's book to anyone who wanted them. He, himself, had never read it. He told me so. As if the confusion over who did what were not enough I thought you might want to compare the signatures of the master and his pupil. I have posted two typical examples below. The differences between them are incidental. Fight the urge to niggle or quibble here. Don't even quibble about niggling. There are many others which could have been posted which would be even closer and then absolutely indistinguishable. |
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Shigoki |
志ご貴
しごき |
A sash of soft cloth tied under the obi. It can be used to tie up flowing robes or to tuck them in whenever necessary - like when one is wading through water.
Nelson gives the kanji for shigoki as 扱. It has many other disparate meanings but here is defined as a woman's undergirdle or waistband. I suspect that this is the more appropriate character, but don't know for sure. (The New Nelson Japanese-English Character Dictionary, p. 476) |
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Shiitake tabo |
椎茸髱
しいたけたぼ |
A hairstyle "...with the sidelocks drawn out in 'mushroom' shapes."
Quote from: The Passionate Art of Kitagawa Utamaro, published by the British Museum Press, London, 1995, text volume, p. 150.
I won't swear to it, but I think the detail from the print by Toyohiro to the left illustrates an example of a bijin with a shiitake tabo hairstyle. |
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Shika |
鹿
しか
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Deer have an ancient connection with religious belief system throughout Eastern Asia. In China Taoists thought that deer were able to find the Fungus of Immortality. In Japan they came to be associated with the kami or gods. In fact, deer are often seen as companions to two of the Seven Propitious Gods.
Fake deer heads were often donned like masks for dances during festivals and antlers became a symbol of strength and virility. Stylized representations adorned the helmets of warriors or were used in family crests. Even the wearing of deer skins was thought to be empowering.
Shamanistic divinations were made from deer bones. Pulled from a fire and allowed to cool the cracks were read, i.e., interpreted. The Chinese practiced the same art but with bones and shells of other creatures.
The image of the deer on the green grass to the left and on top is from a photo I shot from my balcony here in Port Townsend, Washington. The image in the center is a detail from a 20th century print by Koitsu. The one on the bottom was sent to me by a correspondent in Maine. Thanks D! |
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Shima |
縞
しま |
Stripes - a common fabric pattern |
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Shimenawa |
七五三縄 or 注連縄
しめなわ |
Braided rice straw ropes which have the power to keep evil spirits away. Also, for Shintoism, it marks a sacred spot or presence of a kami, i.e., spirit - such as a shimenawa draped around a tree or rock.
Joseph Campbell says about shimenawa "...the august rope of straw that was stretched behind the goddess [Amaterasu] when she reappeared, symbolizes the graciousness of the miracle of the lights return. [The sun goddess had locked herself away in a cave in a fit of pique. It plunged the universe into darkness. The other gods tricked her into leaving her seclusion and blocked her retreat with a shimenawa.] The shimenawa is one of the most conspicuous, important, and silently eloquent, of the traditional symbols of the folk religion of Japan. Hung above the entrances to temples, festooned along the streets of the New Year festival, it denotes the renovation of the world at the threshold of the return. If the Christian cross is the most telling symbol of the mythological passage into the abyss of death, the shimenawa is the simplest sign of the resurrection. The two represent the mystery of the boundary between the worlds - the existent nonexistent line." (The Hero with a Thousand Faces, New World Library, 2008, p. 184)
In a section on straw in Wrapping Culture:: Politeness, Presentation and Power in Japan and Other Societies by Joy Hendry (Oxford University Press, 1993, p. 43) she states that "....straw has also been used for many ritual purposes. Clearly visible all over Japan, for example, are the large straw plaited ropes, or shimenawa, which hang in the archways at the entrance to shrines... These serve to mark off the sacred space inside, and smaller versions of them may be used to give ritual value to the objects. One example is the adornment with straw of the tai, or sea bream, which often forms part of a bride's betrothal gifts. A thin straw rope, decorated with paper as mentioned above, is used to mark off sacred space for the ceremony preceding the construction of private houses and many public buildings, and in preparation for festivals in some parts of the country such a rope is hung around the whole district. |
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Shini-e |
死絵
しにえ |
"Death Print" or memorial print: Literally a death (死) picture (絵). They had also been referred to earleir as tsuizen-e (追善絵 or ついぜんえ). This term has a very clear association with a Buddhist service in commemoration of the anniversary of a death. 1, 2 |
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Shini sōzoku |
死に装束 しにしょうぞく |
Light blue court robe worn for burial or suicide 1 |
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Shintai |
神体
しんたい |
A physical object in which a kami, i.e., god, is said to be exist. 1 |
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Shinzō |
新造 しんぞう |
The lowest order of official prostitutes who also attend to the needs of the highest ranking courtesans. 1 |
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Shiokumi |
汐汲み
しおくみ |
Salt gatherering or gatherer: Enden (塩田 or えんでん) or salt fields were historically the main source of salt in the Japanese diet. Saltwater from the seaside could be boiled down or sand deposits laden with copious amounts of salt could be doused with seawater and then boiled to render an edible product. |
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Years ago I attended the lectures of a visiting scholar, Raymond Mauny, who stressed the importance of the ancient salt trade routes in West Africa. These traversed the Sahara at great peril. However, salt was so highly valued that it was traded for gold and other precious items.
In 1930 Gandhi led a group of men on a march to the sea to gather salt in contravention British orders. The British had imposed a salt tax which Gandhi thought iniquitous.
"When an unwelcome visitor finally leaves the house, the old-fashioned housewife will hurry to the kitchen and, taking a pinch of salt, scatter it all over the house entrance." This is an act of purification which always overpower evil. Sumo wrestlers toss salt before a match to drive away evil spirits and as an indication that they will fight fairly. Even attendees at funerals purify themselves with salt before reentering their homes.
Source and quote from: Mock Joya's Things Japanese, pp. 305-6.
The story of the salt gathering maidens was a popular theatrical theme. In short: "Literary works based on the legend of the sisters Matsukaze [松風 or まつかぜ] and Murasame [村雨 or むらさめ] began with the medieval nō play Matsukaze. In the Edo period, the story develops in many directions, but plays for the puppet and Kabuki theatres are known as 'Matsukaze' pieces'... When performed as a Kabuki dance, the title is always 'Shiokumi' (Drawing Brine). Ariwara no Yukihira [在原の行平 or ありわらのゆきひら], who had been exiled to Suma, falls in love with both the sisters Matsukaze and Murasame, who live by the sea making salt from the brine. When he departs to go back to the Capital, he gives them his golden court hat and hunting cloak..."
Quote from: The Passionate Art of Kitagawa Utamaro, entry by Timothy Clark, published by the British Museum Press, London, 1995, text volume, p. 155-6. |
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Shiori |
栞
しおり |
Bookmark
There was a time in the 18th century when the Japanese were believed to be the most literate people in the world. Naturally this would call for a lot of bookmarks. Whereas this might not seem particularly pertinent to a discussion of ukiyo prints it is. Many artists, such as Utamaro, often used a bookmark cartouche to post the title of a print series. In time some artists even designed whole prints mimicking the shiori itself.
The cartouche seen above is a detail from a print by Kunisada. (You can see the whole print by clicking on the number in the column to the right.) The image below is a detail from a print by Toyokuni III created in the shape of a bookmark. That image was sent to us by our great contributor Eikei.
Thanks 英渓!
Take a look at the prints you own. If your collection is large enough at least one of them will probably have a bookmark cartouche on it. Now you know what that form is called. That is, assuming my information is correct. Don't quote me.
Shiori-gata (栞形 or しおりがた) is the precise term used to indicate a bookmark-shaped cartouche. 1
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Shippō |
七宝
しっぽう
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The Seven Treasures composed of gold, silver, pearls, agate, crystal, coral and lapis lazuli.
Shippo also has two other related meanings. The first is a Japanese term for cloisonné and the second is a decorative motif which displays none of the precious items listed above, but consists only of interlocking circles. See the image detail from a Kiyonaga print to the left.
"The shippo design appeared in the late Heian period as an abstraction from a large overall pattern of overlapping circles, the overlap being exactly equal on all four sides. Its name appears to derive from one of those inimitable Japanese puns, this one shi-ho, or 'four directions.' "
Quoted from: The Elements of Japanese Design, by John W. Dower, p. 134.
I have added the two family crests or mons at top left and below in order that you can see two variations on this motif.
This pattern is also referred to as shippo tsunagi (七宝繋 or しっぽう.つなぎ).
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Shiranami-mono |
白浪物 しらなみもの |
Stage works with thieves and lowlifes as the heroes |
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Shiratama |
白玉 しらたま |
A courtesan of the Tamaya brothel 1 |
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Shirizaya-no-tachi |
尻鞘の太刀
しりざやのたち |
"...a removable fur sheath was provided for the scabbard to protect it from the weather. The type of fur used was determined by the rank of the wearer, and deer, wild boar, or bear skins were commonly used for this purpose." (Quote from: The Shogun Age Exhibition, cat. entry #19, p. 52)
The images to the left and below are from a detail of a print by Yoshitoshi from his "100 Aspects of the Moon".
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Shishi |
獅子
しし |
Lion:
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Shishimai |
獅子舞
ししまい |
Lion dance.
This lonely little, but festive lion dancer image to the left is a detail from a larger surimono. Although it is signed the signature is as yet unread. It has been sent to us by E., one of our favorite correspondents and a great and generous contributor to this web site. Thanks E! |
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師子座 ししのざ |
Buddha's throne: "Shishi no za, a buddha's seat, so called because a buddha among men is like a lion among beasts." (Quote from: Tale of Flowering Fortunes : Annals of Japanese Aristocratic Life in the Heian Period by the McCulloughs, p. 622) There are a number of similar alternatives for the throne of Buddha which could be used.
Haile Selassie, the emperor of Ethiopia, was known as the Lion of Judah, King of the Jews because of his ostensible descent from the House of Solomon. For that reason the lion was seen on his crest and on his national flag. |
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Shōchikubai |
松竹梅
しょうちくばい
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The Three Friends of Winter: The pine, bamboo and plum. "...an ensemble motif of Chinese origin that teams the pine, bamboo, and plum, which are all symbols of winter, long life, and the cultured gentleman. This convention of linking the three plants, which are consistently ranked in the same order...[are used] both as a design motif and an elegant system of designating such things as banquet rooms or menu options in traditional restaurants."
Quote from: Merrily Baird, Rizzoli International Publications, Symbols of Japan: Thematic Motifs in Art and Design, 2001, p. 38.
There is a long and evolved history of the use of these plants both together and separately in various other propitious combinations. They appear frequently on fabric designs, porcelains and on specially, privately published New Year's prints called surimono. The plants themselves are often used in New Year decorations.
The pine is associated with prosperity and endurance, the bamboo with long life and the plum with youth, renewal and beauty.
Shōchikubai may also be translated as 'high, middle and low ranking.'
These examples are being shown courtesy of Shu Suehiro at http://www.botanic.jp/index.htm. A great botanical site. You should visit it. |
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The pine example is Pinus densiflora or Japanese red pine. The native name is Akamatsu (赤松 or あかまつ).
The bamboo shown above is Phyllostachys aurea and is commonly known as Fish pole or Golden bamboo. In Japan it is referred to as Hotei bamboo (布袋竹 or ほていちく). Hotei is the large bellied god of good fortune.
The plum is the Prunus mume or Japanese apricot, a member of the Rose family. The native name is ume (梅 or うめ). |
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娼妓 しょうぎ |
A licensed prostitute |
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Shokudai |
燭台
しょくだい |
Candlestick or candlestand |
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Shōmenzuri |
正面摺
しょうめんずり |
Burnishing: Literally "front printing" - "...technique of rubbing surface of finished print over block carved in reverse in order to give polished texture to pattern".
Quote from: Japanese Print-Making: A Handbook of Traditional & Modern Techniques, by Toshi Yoshida & Rei Yuki, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1966, p. 169.
"Polishing the front of a print on a block to bring out a shiny pattern."
Quote from: Japanese Woodblock Printing, by Rebecca Salter, University of Hawai'i Press, 2001, p. 123.
All of the examples to the left are from Toyokuni III prints. The middle one shows how one would normally see while looking at the printed image. The bottom image shows the same print if you were to take the time to move sheet so that the full effect of the shōmenzuri is made clear. Click on the numbers to the right to go to pages with fuller views. 1, 2
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生類哀れみの令 しょうるいあわれみのれい |
"Laws of Compassion" promulgated by the 'Dog Shogun', Tokugawa Tsunayoshi (徳川綱吉 or とくがわつなよし: 1649-1709), to protect animals - especially the dogs of the Nakano ward of Edo. It has been noted that Nakano is the district used by Haruki Murakami in his Kafka on the Shore as the location where one of his characters can communicate with cats. |
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"The idea that harsh punishments could serve a profound moral purpose by encouraging people to abandon evil and embrace good to be expressed in various forms for much of the Tokugawa period.... At the level of actual practice, using punishments as a technique for promoting moral reform was taken to an extreme under the fifth Tokugawa shogun, Tsunayoshi (r. 1680-1709). As his grand chamberlain, Yanagisawa Yoshiyasu (1658-1714), explained, Tsunayoshi's infamous Laws of Compassion (shōrui awaremi no rei) 'initially arose solely out of the shogun's desire to admonish even the slightest lack of benevolence and to perfect the spirit of the common people.' The severity of the laws, which included proscriptions against the killing and mistreatment of animals (most famously, dogs) created significant problems for the Bukufu. Reports of people being crucified for killing dogs and other such seemingly minor offenses quickly gave rise to apprehension and resentment among various segments of the population. Far from being seen as a saintly ruler protecting the sanctity of life and the welfare of the people, Tsunayoshi, 'the dog shogun' (oinu kubō), has instead been remembered as an eccentric tyrant." (Quoted from: Punishment and Power in the Making of Modern Japan by Daniel V. Botsman, p. 43)
Ōishi Senzaburō (大石慎三郎 or おおいし しんざぶろう: 1923-2004) wrote that the Laws of Compassion were "...the worst laws in Tokugawa history..." and may have been the worst feudal laws anywhere. (Quoted from: The Dog Shogun: The Personality and Policies of Tokugawa Tsunayoshi by Beatrice Bodart-Bailey, p. 128) Bodart-Bailey points out that not all scholars have agreed on this point although the general consensus is weighted against Tsunayoshi. |
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修験道 しゅげんどう |
"Shugendō itself is a very complex religious movement: it emerged from indigenous beliefs and religious practices in the Japanese mountains, accepted the influence of religious Taoism and Shintō, and was organized around the forms of esoteric Buddhism. Local Shugendō headquarters occupied many mountains throughout Japan; like medieval Buddhist temples, were at the same time military strongholds which controlled both the political and religious life of the respective local." (Quoted from: Ishikozume, Ritual Execution in Japanese Religion by Byron Earhart, pp. 120-21)
Earhart continued: "The members of Shugendō entered the mountains in order to pursue religio-ascetic training. When someone became sick it was a sign that his ascetic practices were inadequate, and he was killed by pushing him into a chasm. This is what is known as tanikō. In a Noh play the following episode is related. 'When a yamabushi and his disciple entered the mountains for ascetic practices, the disciple became sick. Because it is the rule that sick persons during mountain austerities must be subjected to taniko, the yamabushi - crying all the while - pushed his beloved disciple into a chasm. He buried him by throwing stones and tile over his body. But because he prayed to Fudo-myoo and En no Ubasoku, demons and spirits few [sic] to the spot, tore away the rocks, and the disciple revived." Tanikō is often translated as 'valley hurling'. Fudo-myoo was a favorite of the sect and En no Ubasoku is one of the names of the founders of Shugendō. (ibid.) Another variation on the name of the founder is En no Gyōja (役行者 or えんのぎょうじゃ). |
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宿場町 しゅくばまち |
These were towns were given official status as way stations under the Tokugawa shogunate. 53 of them were established along the Tōkaidō Road where travellers could find food and lodging, temporary storage, fresh horses or runners for official business. (There were 55 stations plus or minus a couple depending on how you count them and when they were counted.)
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Shuro |
棕櫚
しゅろ |
The hemp palm motif was particularly popular during Heian times because it was both an aristocratic symbol as it had been in China and because of its exoticism. Occasionally it was later used as a family crest or mon. |
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Shushoku |
手燭
しゅしょく |
A portable candlestick. This type of a lighting is also referred to as a teshoku (てしょく). |
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LINKS TO OUR OTHER INDEX/GLOSSARY PAGES Click on any of the pages listed below!
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